Environment and Sustainable Development
The Environment and Economic Activity
- 1.The environment provides two key economic services:
- 2.Source function: The natural environment supplies resources — air, water, minerals, forests, fossil fuels — as inputs for production.
- 3.Sink function: The environment absorbs waste and pollution generated by production and consumption (e.g., CO2 absorbed by forests, rivers diluting industrial effluents).
Economic development increases both the extraction of natural resources (source) and the generation of waste (sink demands). When the economy expands faster than nature's capacity to regenerate resources and absorb waste, environmental degradation occurs.
Sustainable Development
The Brundtland Commission (1987) defined sustainable development as: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
- This requires:
- Renewable resource use at a rate no faster than natural regeneration.
- Non-renewable resource use at a rate no faster than renewable substitutes can be developed.
- Pollution generation at rates no higher than the environment can safely absorb.
Environmental Issues in India
- 1.Air Pollution: Industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, burning of crop residue (stubble burning in Punjab/Haryana). India has many of the world's most polluted cities.
- 2.Water Pollution: Industrial effluents and untreated sewage discharged into rivers (Ganga, Yamuna). Groundwater depletion due to over-irrigation.
- 3.Land Degradation: Deforestation, soil erosion, salinity from over-irrigation, desertification in Rajasthan.
- 4.Global Warming: India is among the top emitters of CO2. Rising temperatures threaten agriculture (erratic monsoons), coastal areas (sea level rise), and glaciers (freshwater supply).
Global Warming and Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
Developed countries industrialised first and emitted most of the historical greenhouse gases. Developing countries like India argue they have the right to develop. The principle of "Common But Differentiated Responsibilities" (CBDR) says all countries share responsibility for climate change, but developed nations bear greater obligations due to historical emissions and greater capacity to act.
Source and sink function
A paper mill extracts timber (source function) from a forest and releases chemical effluents into a river (sink function). If the mill cuts more trees than the forest can regrow, and pollutes more than the river can clean, both functions are impaired — showing environmental limits to growth.
Sustainable vs unsustainable groundwater use
A village uses 10 million litres of groundwater per year. The aquifer naturally recharges at 8 million litres per year. Extraction exceeds recharge by 2 million litres — the water table falls year after year. This is unsustainable. Reducing extraction to 8 million litres or improving recharge (rainwater harvesting) restores sustainability.
The Chipko Movement
In the 1970s in Uttarakhand, local women hugged trees to prevent commercial logging. "Chipko" (embrace) became a symbol of grassroots environmental protection. It highlighted that forests are not just timber but provide water, clean air, soil stability, and livelihoods to local communities — services not captured in timber prices.
Carbon tax as a policy tool
A government imposes Rs. 500 per tonne of CO2 emitted. A factory emitting 10,000 tonnes pays Rs. 50 lakh in tax. This increases the cost of polluting, incentivising the firm to invest in cleaner technology. The revenue can fund renewable energy subsidies. This is an example of internalising an externality.
Renewable vs non-renewable resources
Coal (non-renewable): once burned, it is gone forever. Solar energy (renewable): the sun provides energy continuously. Switching from coal to solar aligns with sustainable development — renewable resources can be used indefinitely if managed properly.
Ganga Action Plan
The Ganga is heavily polluted by industrial effluents (tanneries in Kanpur) and untreated sewage from 118 towns along its banks. The government launched the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). This is an example of addressing the "sink function" overload — too much waste for the river to safely absorb.
Tragedy of the Commons
A village has a common grazing ground. Each farmer adds cattle to maximise personal benefit. But collectively, overgrazing destroys the pasture. No individual farmer internalises the cost of their grazing on others. This is the "tragedy of the commons" — common resources are over-exploited because no one has a property right to protect them.
Common mistakes
- Sustainable development is NOT zero growth — it is growth that stays within environmental limits and is equitable across generations.
- The sink function does not mean dumping is always acceptable — it means nature CAN absorb some waste, up to a limit (the "assimilation capacity").
- CBDR does not exempt developing countries from taking any climate action — it means responsibilities are differentiated, not that developing countries bear none.
Summary
Environment and economy are deeply interlinked. The environment serves as a source of inputs and a sink for waste. Sustainable development requires respecting these limits — using renewable resources within their regeneration rate and limiting pollution to the sink capacity. India faces serious environmental challenges: air and water pollution, deforestation, land degradation, and climate vulnerability. Policies like pollution taxes, cap-and-trade systems, and international agreements (CBDR principle) are tools for achieving sustainability. Local movements (Chipko) demonstrate that communities can protect their environmental resources.