A democratic government works through institutions — established organisations with defined roles, rules, and procedures. The three main institutions of government in India are the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. This chapter examines how they work and interact.
The Three Organs of Government
| Organ | Function | Example |
|-------|----------|---------|
| Legislature (Parliament) | Makes laws | Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha |
| Executive | Implements laws; runs the government | President, Prime Minister, Cabinet, Civil Servants |
| Judiciary | Interprets laws; resolves disputes | Supreme Court, High Courts |
Parliament of India
- Parliament consists of:
- Lok Sabha (House of the People) — 543 elected members; represents the people directly.
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States) — 245 members; represents states; members are indirectly elected by state legislatures.
- President of India — formal head of Parliament.
Functions: Passes laws, approves the Budget, questions the executive (Question Hour, Zero Hour), debates national issues, and can remove the government through a no-confidence motion.
The Executive
- President — Constitutional head; formally approves laws; appoints the Prime Minister.
- Prime Minister (PM) — Real executive; leader of the majority party/coalition; heads the Council of Ministers.
- Council of Ministers — Cabinet is the inner circle of senior ministers; collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
- Civil Services — Permanent bureaucracy implementing government policies.
Permanent Executive vs Political Executive
Key formulas
The Judiciary
- Supreme Court — Highest court; guardian of the Constitution; has original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction.
- High Courts — One per state (or group of states).
- District and subordinate courts — at district and lower levels.
The judiciary is independent — judges are not elected and cannot be removed by the government arbitrarily. This protects them from political pressure.
How These Institutions Check and Balance Each Other
- Parliament can pass laws → President can return for reconsideration → Courts can strike down if unconstitutional.
- Parliament approves the Budget → PM and Cabinet implement it.
- No-confidence motion → Parliament removes the government.
- Judicial review → Courts check Parliament and Executive.
Worked Examples
How does the Question Hour in Parliament make the executive accountable?
During Question Hour (first hour of each sitting), MPs ask ministers questions about government policy and functioning. Ministers must answer, forcing them to be transparent and accountable to elected representatives.
Why is a civil servant preferred over a minister for implementing technical projects?
Civil servants (permanent executive) have administrative expertise, institutional memory, and political neutrality. Ministers (political executive) set policy direction but rely on civil servants for effective, non-partisan implementation.
What happens if a government loses a no-confidence motion?
The government must resign. The President then either invites the opposition to form a government (if it has majority support) or dissolves the Lok Sabha and calls fresh elections.
The President of India returns a Bill. What happens?
Under Article 111, the President can return (withhold assent to) a non-money Bill, sending it back with suggestions. If Parliament passes it again, the President must give assent — the President's veto is thus only suspensive.
How does judicial review protect democracy?
The Supreme Court can declare laws passed by Parliament unconstitutional if they violate Fundamental Rights or the basic structure of the Constitution. This prevents even a large elected majority from damaging democratic foundations.
Why does the Cabinet have "collective responsibility"?
All Cabinet ministers publicly support government decisions even if they disagreed privately. This creates unified, stable governance. A minister who cannot support a decision must resign from the Cabinet.
Key Facts
- Minimum age for Lok Sabha membership: 25 years
- Minimum age for Rajya Sabha membership: 30 years
- The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body — it never dissolves; one-third of members retire every 2 years.
- The Prime Minister is the leader of the Lok Sabha as head of the majority.
Common mistakes
Students confuse the President and the Prime Minister. The President is the constitutional/nominal head — real power lies with the PM and Cabinet. The President acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers in almost all matters.
Summary
India's democratic government works through three interdependent institutions: Parliament (makes laws), Executive (implements laws), and Judiciary (interprets laws). Each checks and balances the others. Parliament makes the executive accountable; courts ensure all actions are constitutional; civil servants ensure continuity of administration. This institutional balance protects democracy and prevents concentration of power.