Indian nationalism developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to British colonial rule. It was shaped by the idea of a common struggle against a shared enemy and the vision of a free, self-governing India.
The First World War and Its Impact
The First World War (1914–1918) had a deep impact on India. The British government forced India to contribute soldiers and resources to the war. Prices of goods rose sharply, heavy taxation increased hardship, and the forced recruitment of soldiers caused resentment in rural areas. This created a strong anti-British sentiment.
Mahatma Gandhi and the Arrival of a New Style of Politics
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. He had already used the technique of Satyagraha (truth-force or soul-force) against racial discrimination in South Africa. His idea was that a person could fight injustice not with violence but with moral courage and non-violent resistance.
- Gandhi's early Satyagrahas in India:
- Champaran (1917): Gandhi supported indigo cultivators in Bihar against the exploitative tinkathia system of the British planters.
- Kheda (1918): He supported farmers in Gujarat who were unable to pay revenue due to crop failure.
- Ahmedabad (1918): He backed mill workers in a wage dispute.
The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
In 1919, the British passed the Rowlatt Act, which allowed the government to arrest and detain any person without trial. Gandhi called it the "Black Act" and launched a nationwide Satyagraha against it.
On 13 April 1919, a large peaceful crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. General Dyer ordered troops to open fire without warning, killing hundreds of unarmed people. This massacre shocked the nation and turned millions against British rule.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)
- Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920 with the support of the Indian National Congress. The aims were to attain Swaraj (self-rule). The movement involved:
- Surrendering titles and honours given by the British.
- Boycotting civil services, army, police, courts, and legislative councils.
- Refusing to attend government schools and colleges.
- Boycotting foreign goods and using khadi (hand-spun cloth).
The movement gained momentum but was called off by Gandhi in February 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident, where a crowd of peasants burned a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi believed that violence had no place in a non-violent movement.
The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement with the famous Dandi March (also called the Salt March) on 12 March 1930. He walked 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast to make salt from seawater, defying the British salt law. This was a symbolic and powerful act — salt was a basic necessity taxed by the British.
The movement spread across India. Peasants refused to pay revenue, tribal people violated forest laws, and women picketed liquor shops. The British eventually signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931), agreeing to release political prisoners in exchange for Gandhi suspending the movement.
Limits of Civil Disobedience: Dalits and Women
B.R. Ambedkar led the Dalit movement and clashed with Gandhi over separate electorates for Dalits (Poona Pact, 1932). Many women joined the movement, breaking into the public sphere. However, Congress was hesitant to take up social reform alongside nationalism.
The Salt March as a Symbol
By choosing salt — something every Indian used and every British law taxed — Gandhi made civil disobedience accessible to all Indians regardless of class or religion. It united peasants, merchants, and workers in a single cause.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha
The nationwide hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act on 6 April 1919 showed Gandhi's ability to mobilise Indians across regions. It also demonstrated that ordinary people could resist unjust laws through peaceful means.
Participation of Women
Women like Sarojini Naidu marched with Gandhi to Dandi. Thousands of women left their homes to picket foreign cloth shops and liquor outlets. This was a significant expansion of women's participation in public and political life.
Khilafat Movement Alliance
Gandhi allied with the Khilafat Movement (led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) to bring Muslims and Hindus together in a joint struggle against British rule. This Hindu-Muslim unity was a key feature of the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920.
The Chauri Chaura Incident
In February 1922, a crowd at Chauri Chaura (UP) clashed with police and burned the police station. Gandhi immediately called off the Non-Cooperation Movement. This shows his absolute commitment to non-violence as the soul of the movement.
The Poona Pact (1932)
After Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits, Gandhi undertook a fast-unto-death. The resulting Poona Pact reserved seats for Dalits within the general Hindu electorate rather than separate electorates, demonstrating tensions within the nationalist movement over social issues.
Key Terms
- Satyagraha: Non-violent resistance based on truth.
- Swaraj: Self-rule or independence.
- Hartal: Strike, an act of shutting down businesses and workplaces in protest.
- Begar: Forced labour without payment, practised against peasants.
Common mistakes
- Students often confuse the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) with the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930). The key difference: Non-Cooperation was about refusing to cooperate with the British; Civil Disobedience involved actively breaking unjust laws like the salt law.
- The Dandi March was to Dandi on the Gujarat coast, not to Delhi.
Summary
Indian nationalism crystallised into mass movements under Gandhi's leadership. The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh massacre united Indians. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) and Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) mobilised millions. However, the movements also revealed fault lines around caste, religion, and gender.