Nationalism is the idea that people who share a common history, culture, language, or territory form a nation and should have a government of their own. In the nineteenth century, nationalism became a powerful force that reshaped the political map of Europe.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism. The revolutionaries declared that the sovereignty (supreme power) belonged to the people, not the king. They introduced the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. A new French flag — the tricolour — replaced the royal standard. A new hymn, the Marseillaise, was sung. These symbols created a sense of collective identity among French citizens.
Napoleon Bonaparte, though he ended the Republic, carried the revolutionary ideas across Europe through his conquests. He introduced the Napoleonic Code — a uniform set of laws that abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and protected property rights. These changes inspired people in other countries to think about their own national identities.
The Idea of Nationalism Spreads
After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna (1815) tried to restore the old monarchies. But the ideas of nationalism could not be suppressed. Secret societies like the Carbonari in Italy and Young Italy (founded by Giuseppe Mazzini) worked to unite their nations.
Romanticism was a cultural movement that helped develop nationalist feelings. Romantic artists, poets, and musicians glorified the nation's past, its folk songs, dances, and language. The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder argued that true German culture lay in the common people — their folk songs and poetry.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Germany: Before unification, Germany was a collection of small kingdoms. Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, used a policy of "blood and iron" — war and diplomacy — to unify the German states. After defeating Austria (1866) and France (1871), the German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles. Kaiser William I became the emperor.
Italy: Italy too was divided into many states. Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, allied with France and drove the Austrians out of northern Italy. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteer army, the Red Shirts, defeated the local rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
Key Terms
- Nation-state: A state whose members share a common national identity.
- Absolutism: A form of government where power is concentrated in the hands of one ruler.
- Zollverein: A customs union formed in 1834 by Prussia that united various German states economically.
- Frankfurt Parliament (1848): An elected assembly that tried to draft a constitution for a united Germany but failed.
The Frankfurt Parliament
The Frankfurt Parliament of 1848 brought together elected representatives from German states to draft a constitution. However, it failed because the Prussian king refused the crown offered by the assembly, and the movement was crushed by conservative forces. This shows that nationalism alone was not enough — political and military power was also needed.
The Role of Romantic Art
The German Romantic painter Caspar David Friedrich depicted vast landscapes to awaken a sense of pride in the German homeland. Similarly, the poet Heinrich Heine wrote poems in the German language celebrating folk traditions, helping people feel connected to a shared cultural identity.
Bismarck's Unification Strategy
Bismarck provoked three wars — against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-71) — to achieve German unification. Each war expanded Prussian territory and brought German states closer together under Prussian leadership. This demonstrates that nationalism in Germany was achieved from "above" through statecraft, not mass revolution.
Giuseppe Garibaldi's March of the Thousand
In 1860, Garibaldi led 1000 Red Shirts from Genoa to Sicily and Naples, defeating the Bourbon rulers. He then handed the conquered territories to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. This is an example of nationalism from "below" — a popular movement that complemented the efforts of Cavour from "above."
The Zollverein and Economic Nationalism
The Zollverein (customs union) of 1834 removed trade barriers between German states, creating a single economic zone. This economic integration preceded political unification and showed that shared economic interests can strengthen national identity.
The Treaty of Vienna (1815) and Its Limits
The Congress of Vienna restored the monarchies of France, the Netherlands, and other states. It created the German Confederation of 39 states. However, by ignoring nationalist aspirations, it planted the seeds of future revolutions in 1830 and 1848 across Europe.
Common mistakes
- Students often confuse Mazzini (Italian nationalist, founder of Young Italy) with Cavour (the statesman who diplomatically united Italy). Mazzini sought a republic; Cavour worked within the monarchy.
- Do not confuse the Frankfurt Parliament (Germany, 1848) with the French National Assembly (France, 1789).
Summary
Nationalism in Europe grew out of the French Revolution's ideals of liberty and popular sovereignty. Spread by Napoleon and nurtured by Romanticism, it led to the unification of Germany (under Bismarck) and Italy (through Cavour and Garibaldi) by 1871. The Congress of Vienna tried to halt nationalism but ultimately failed.