Theme 4 – Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Introduction

Between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, the Indian subcontinent witnessed an extraordinary flowering of philosophical thought and religious architecture. The age of the Upanishads, the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism, the development of Bhakti traditions, and the construction of magnificent stupas, rock-cut caves, and temples transformed the cultural landscape. This chapter examines the ideas of major thinkers, the practices and beliefs of new religious movements, and the architectural expressions of these beliefs — studying them not in isolation but as responses to specific social and historical contexts.

The Intellectual Background: The Upanishads and the Shramana Traditions

The Upanishads (c. 800–500 BCE) represent a philosophical revolution within the Brahmanical tradition. They shifted the focus from elaborate ritual (Vedic yajnas) to inner knowledge and the relationship between Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal consciousness). The key concept — Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahman) — asserted the identity of individual and cosmic reality.

Alongside the Upanishadic tradition, a diverse group of wandering ascetics and philosophers called Shramanas challenged Brahmanical authority. Among them, the most historically significant were the founders of Buddhism and Jainism.

Mahavira and Jainism

• Ahimsa (non-violence) — the supreme ethical principle; carried to the extent of filtering water before drinking to avoid harming micro-organisms.
• Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possession) are the five vows.
• Anekantavada — the doctrine of many-sidedness of truth: any statement about reality is only partially true.
• The universe is eternal and uncreated; there is no creator god.
• Liberation (moksha) comes through rigorous asceticism — Digambara (sky-clad, without clothes) monks took this to the most austere extreme.

Jainism attracted merchants and traders, who found Ahimsa compatible with a trading lifestyle (avoiding occupations involving killing).

The Buddha and Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths: (1) Life involves suffering ( · dukkha · ); (2) Suffering arises from craving ( · tanha · ); (3) Cessation of craving ends suffering; (4) The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to achieve this.
• Nirvana: The extinguishing of desire and ego, leading to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• Dependent origination ( · Pratityasamutpada · ): All phenomena arise in dependence on conditions — nothing exists independently.
• Anatta (no-self): There is no permanent, unchanging self — a direct challenge to the Upanishadic concept of Atman.

• Schools of Buddhism:
• Theravada (Hinayana) — emphasises the individual monk's path to nirvana; dominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
• Mahayana — emerged c. 1st century CE; the ideal is the Bodhisattva who delays nirvana to help all beings; spread to China, Japan, Korea.
• Vajrayana — tantric forms of Buddhism that became important in Tibet and Nepal.

Royal Patronage and the Spread of Religions

• Buddhism spread rapidly under royal patronage:
• Ashoka Maurya (r. 268–232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, sent missionaries (including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra) to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and built stupas over the Buddha's relics. His edicts promoted Dhamma — a broader ethical code.
• Kanishka I (Kushana king, c. 1st–2nd century CE) convened the Fourth Buddhist Council and patronised Mahayana Buddhism. He built the massive Kanishka stupa at Peshawar.

Jainism found patronage under the Ganga dynasty of Karnataka and later Rajput rulers. Brahmanical traditions were supported by Gupta kings, who patronised Sanskrit literature and built the early structural temples.

Buddhist Architecture: Stupas, Viharas, and Chaityas

• Stupa: A hemispherical mound built over relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints. Structure:
• Anda (dome) — the main hemispherical body
• Harmika — a square railing on top representing a divine palace
• Yashti — a central mast (axis mundi)
• Chattra — an umbrella symbolising royalty and protection
• Pradakshinapatha — a circumambulatory path for worshippers to walk clockwise

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) is the finest surviving example, begun by Ashoka and enlarged over centuries. Its four toranas (gateways) are carved with scenes from the Jatakas (birth stories of the Buddha) and the life of the Buddha — notably, the Buddha himself is not depicted in human form in early Buddhist art, but represented by symbols (the Bodhi tree, footprints, an empty throne, a parasol).

The Ajanta Caves

The Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra, c. 2nd century BCE–7th century CE) are 30 rock-cut caves comprising both chaitya halls and viharas, famous for their extraordinarily preserved murals depicting Jataka stories and the life of the Buddha. The paintings are among the finest examples of ancient Indian art and show sophisticated understanding of perspective, colour, and expression.

Temples and the Hindu Tradition

While early Brahmanical worship centred on open-air fire sacrifices (yajnas), the Gupta period (c. 4th–6th century CE) saw the construction of the first free-standing structural temples as permanent homes for deities. Key features of early temple architecture:

• Garbhagriha (womb chamber) — the dark inner sanctum housing the deity's image
• Shikhara — the rising tower above the garbhagriha
• Mandapa — a pillared porch for devotees
• Murti (sacred image) — the consecrated image of the deity, considered a living presence

The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh (UP) and the Vishnu Temple at Tigawa (MP) are early Gupta-era examples. The Nagara style (curved shikhara, common in northern India) and the Dravida style (pyramid gopuram, dominant in southern India) emerged as distinct architectural traditions.