Introduction
Environmental issues have moved from the margins of politics to the centre of global political discourse. The sustainability of human civilisation depends on how nations manage the natural resources and ecological systems that support all life. This chapter examines the politics of the environment — who owns natural resources, how global environmental agreements are made, and the tensions between development and environmental protection.
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The Global Commons
- Global commons are resources that no single nation owns but all nations depend upon:
- The atmosphere: Climate-regulating gases and the ozone layer
- Antarctica: Governed by the Antarctic Treaty System (1959)
- The oceans beyond national jurisdiction: High seas
- Outer space: No nation can claim sovereignty
The political challenge is the "tragedy of the commons" — if no one owns a resource, everyone over-exploits it. International cooperation is required to prevent this.
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Environmental Issues as Global Political Issues
1. Climate Change
- Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere.
- This causes global warming, leading to: rising sea levels, extreme weather events, glacial melt, droughts, and ecosystem disruption.
- Small island states (Maldives, Tuvalu) face existential threat from rising seas.
- The UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), signed at the Rio Earth Summit (1992), established the framework for climate negotiations.
- The Kyoto Protocol (1997) committed developed countries to binding emission reduction targets; the USA never ratified it.
- The Paris Agreement (2015) set a goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels; all nations submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
2. Ozone Depletion
- CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in refrigerants and aerosols deplete the ozone layer, allowing harmful UV radiation to reach Earth.
- The Montreal Protocol (1987) is one of the most successful international environmental agreements, phasing out ozone-depleting substances. The ozone layer is slowly recovering.
3. Biodiversity Loss
- Human activities (deforestation, agriculture, urbanisation, pollution) are driving species to extinction at an accelerating rate.
- The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) addresses conservation.
4. Water Scarcity
- Freshwater is a finite resource; over-extraction of groundwater and pollution of rivers threatens billions.
- Transboundary rivers create potential "water wars" — shared rivers between hostile nations (India-Pakistan: Indus Waters Treaty; India-Bangladesh: Ganga Waters Treaty).
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The North-South Divide in Environmental Politics
The most contentious aspect of global environmental politics is the inequality between developed (North) and developing (South) nations:
Northern view: All nations must reduce emissions and protect forests; environmental protection is a global responsibility.
Southern view: Developed nations historically caused most of the emissions that created climate change; developing nations have the right to develop and should not be constrained the way developed nations were not. This is the principle of "Common but Differentiated Responsibilities" (CBDR).
India and China, as major emerging economies, insist that they cannot sacrifice economic development (and poverty reduction) for environmental targets set primarily by already-industrialised nations.
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Earth Summit and Agenda 21
- The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the Rio Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It produced:
- Agenda 21: A comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development
- UNFCCC: Framework for climate negotiations
- CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity
- Rio Declaration: Principles for sustainable development
The concept of sustainable development — meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs — was central to the Rio agenda.
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India and the Environment
India occupies a unique position: home to enormous biodiversity, dependent on monsoons for agriculture, and simultaneously needing rapid development to lift hundreds of millions from poverty.
- Key positions:
- India supports sustainable development and argues for technology transfer from developed to developing nations.
- India has signed the Paris Agreement and committed to renewable energy expansion.
- The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) outlines India's domestic commitments.
- India is one of the world's largest users of renewable energy (solar, wind).
- The Supreme Court of India has recognised the right to a clean environment as part of the right to life under Article 21.
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Common mistakes
- Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement are different: Kyoto had binding targets only for developed nations; Paris has voluntary NDCs for all nations.
- The Rio Earth Summit was in 1992; the Kyoto Protocol was in 1997; the Paris Agreement was in 2015 — these are separate agreements in sequence.
- "Common but Differentiated Responsibilities" means all countries share responsibility but to different degrees based on historical contribution and current capacity.
- The ozone hole and climate change are different problems: the ozone hole is from CFCs; climate change is from CO2/methane. However, both relate to the atmosphere.
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Summary
Environmental politics is one of the defining challenges of the 21st century. The atmosphere, oceans, biodiversity, and freshwater are global commons threatened by human activity. International agreements like UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, and Montreal Protocol represent attempts at global governance. The central tension is between developed nations (who urge immediate action) and developing nations (who insist on the right to development and note historical responsibility). Sustainable development — balancing growth and environmental protection — remains the guiding principle.